关于本课程 为了解释全球化是如何重构公共政策和再塑社会行为，我们将研究不同的政治、经济行为体、研究各类——公共或私人，个体或集体——社会行为体，并着眼关注到它们之间的交流和互动作用，这些行为体正在重构着国际关系。 本课程以法国社会学和历史学视角来研究国际关系。同时也提供英语版本(www.coursera.org/learn/global-studies/)、法语版本(www.coursera.org/learn/espace-mondial-fr/)和阿拉伯语版本(www.coursera.org/learn/espace-mondial-ar/)。
纠结不清的定义
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En provenance du cours de Sciences Po
世界空间、法国视角下的国际研究
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Bertrand BadieProfessor
Marie-Françoise DurandProfessor
[MUSIC]
Let's move now to identities in a global world.
This issue is probably one of the toughest one
in the investigation of the new international order.
Identity is a very difficult concept.
It's very difficult to define it, and however,
it's commonly used especially in the political rhetoric.
So we have to take care of the way
by which we will try to define it and
to conceive it, to build it as a concept.
But the problem, the issue of identity is probably
one of the crushing issues of the present debate in
world politics and also in international relations.
First of all, we can through the concept of identity,
rediscover and reconstruct the concept of international actor.
What is an international actor?
Is the international actor free from every kind of constraint or
is he determined, defined by his own culture?
What is the part of liberty of freedom of the actor, and
what part of the cultural determinant of his own action?
Can we consider an individual in Iraq, for instance,
as acting as an Iraqian citizen or a Shiite citizen,
Sunni citizen, Kurdish citizen,
or may we consider him as a Muslim individual?
How the individual is built by himself is probably
one of the most difficult part of the analysis.
The second point is the nature of political system.
Can we conceive a Muslim political system or
a Christian political system or a Western political system?
I mean, what is part of the cultural substratum of a political system?
Is it possible to coin the concept of Muslim political system or
political system in Islam as it is commonly said?
It's clear for instance, that there are different kinds of Islam,
different kinds of Muslim culture.
So how to connect the concept of culture to the global
concept of a political system?
Is it a way for investigating it or is it a kind of deadlock?
And the third issue would be, what about the international relations?
Are international relations made of a clash
of civilization as it is pointed by Samuel Huntington?
Can we consider that culture is shaping,
structuring the international relations in the present world?
Or is the cultural cleavage one of the possible cleavages among others?
Or is it a construction which is an illusion
more than a real factor of international dynamics?
There is also a fourth question about the context of international relation.
How can we take into account an international situation?
Is the situation made by culture and cultural cleavages?
Or is it made of a conflict which is reinterpreted through the culture?
Is this reinterpretation made by the actor or is it made by the observer?
So, the statutes of the cultural factor and
the identity factor is not really clear.
And that's why it's important for us to try to make sense of this,
and to discuss this very important problem.
Let's start by your definition.
We are probably puzzled by all these substantial
essential definitions of identity,
like if identity is natural.
But in a sociological point of view, there is no natural identity.
There is no identity which could be considered
a priori as shaping the social behavior.
Identity is a social consruct.
Identity is pointing on the very sensible and
very important issue of how to define the self,
how to define myself in relation to the others?
How can I imagine, how can I drop the line separating myself and the others?
What is my group?
What is the group to which I identify myself?
That’s to say identity is, first of all, a decision, a decision which is taken by
every individual when he is facing a situation.
That's why I consider identity as a strategy,
is a strategy of self definition, and
of definition of the other, that's to say, of the exclusion.
Those who are not members of my group or
the group to which I identify myself.
If we consider identity as a strategy, well first of all,
to consider it as unstable.
When I define my identity, it's not for
a permanent behavior, but for
structuring my behavior in a moment or
the time in a special context.
That's why it's unstable and identity is also volatile.
If I define myself one day as a Muslim, maybe in another context,
I will define myself as an Iraqian citizen or as a Sunni or as a Kurd or as a Shia.
That’s to say, this volatility of identity is
probably one of the key problem of the international,
of the regional, of the national, of the local order.
The future of Iraq will depend on the strategy
of every individual in Iraq who has to
determine, in a precise context,
what kind of identification he will opt for.
But for this reason, identity is not only
decided by myself but also instrumentalized or
so manipulated by political entrepreneurs.
My decision as an individual is never sovereign.
I am also determined by the pressure, by the influence,
by the strategies of entrepreneurs.
And that's why I would conserve identity as a kind of transaction
between the individual and all the entrepreneurs who are competing for
shaping your own identity.
If the entrepreneurs, the identity entrepreneurs, and
the political entrepreneurs are able to shape your own identity,
it means that the entrepreneur's job will be
also depending on your own expectations.
That's to say, identity is shaped by the entrepreneurs,
according to their expectations.
If there are no expectations meeting the influence of an entrepreneur,
the entrepreneur has no chance to influence and to shape and
to structure your own identity.
That's why there is a clear connection between identity,
identity building, and frustrations,
inequalities, stigmatization, and so on.
And we don't wonder when we see that
identity mobilization especially
strong where the frustrations and
the social expectations are so important.
Where there's a lot of frustrated expectations,
the chance of the identity entrepreneurs to
influence your own choice will be higher and higher.
Now if identity is the result of this
kind of transaction we have now, to consider the substance of identity.
When I opt for an identity, I identify myself to a group,
but I am also identifying myself to a culture.
That's why the concept of culture is so important and
that's why also using the concept of culture is so
difficult and so risky in social sciences.
Culture doesn't mean values.
In a society, a conflict of values, a plurality of values is possible and
however the society is also defined by your common culture.
You can share a culture with other individuals
without sharing the same values.
In every nation, we can observe this conflict of values.
Conflict of values is not destroying culture.
That's why culture is at another level, we have to take into account.
We have to consider there is a very interesting fascinating
book written by this great anthropologist Clifford Geertz.
Clifford Geertz published in 1973, a very important
book which is entitled The Interpretation of Cultures,
in which Geertz is pointing that culture doesn't mean
national character as it is commonly said, but is a system of meanings.
That's to say, the meanings which are shared among society,
and by which individuals are able to understand each other.
And Geertz is pointing that individuals
in a group are weaving the system of meanings
of which they are then depending on.
So the system of meaning is probably the best way for
understanding what culture means.
And is pointing on the fact that a society is possible with cleavages,
with a plurality of values.
But it's not possible without a code, that's to say a common system
of meanings by which politics doesn't mean in Arab worlds for
instance, what it means in Western countries.
The meaning of political institutions is changing according to the history,
that's to say according to the culture of the societies and nations.
But the real problem now is to consider
that there is no homogeneous cultural spaces.
And that in a society, there is a permanent
hybridization between different kinds of culture.
That's why culture is not making your territory,
and in a territory, are coexisting different kinds of culture.
The last concept is identity crisis.
What is an identity crisis?
Something very clear, that's to say when there is no coincidence
between the imagined community as Benedict Anderson say, and the real community.
When you are living in a system which doesn't
coincide to the imagined community to which you consider to be in.
[MUSIC]
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