حول هذه المادة التدريسية لكي نفسّر كيف أن العولمة تعيد بناء السياسات العامة والسلوكيات الاجتماعية، ندرس التبادلات والتفاعلات بين مختلف الجهات الفاعلة السياسية والاقتصادية، والاجتماعية - العامة أو الخاصة، الفردية أو الجماعية- والطريقة التي تعيد فيها صياغة العلاقات الدولية. هذه المادة التدريسية تعتمد على المقاربات السوسيولوجية والتاريخية الفرنسية العائدة للعلاقات الدولية. وهي متوفرة أيضاً في نسخة باللغة الإنجليزية (www.coursera.org/learn/global-studies)، وأخرى باللغة الفرنسية (www.coursera.org/learn/espace-mondial-fr)
قياس القدرات السياسية الحقيقية للدين
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"Espace mondial" الرؤية الفرنسية للدراسات العالمية
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الأديان
يُنظر الى الدين كمعلمة رئيسية في النظام العالمي المعاصر، لكن هذه النظرة تحتوي على الكثير من التبسيط.
Rencontrer les enseignants
Bertrand BadieProfessor
Marie-Françoise DurandProfessor
Jana JabbourLecturer
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. How now religion is playing a role in
the political arena and especially in the international arena.
In anyway, the role played in the national arena has international
consequences as we are now in a global and interdependent world.
The issue seems to be easy as we have so
many examples of this political function of religion.
And however, it's very difficult to observe
because there are many many illusions when we
are discovering and watching all these political expressions.
I think we have to discriminate three levels of relevance.
The first would be power, how
religions are defining themselves when facing power.
The second would be mobilization.
What's the role of religion in political mobilization.
And third is conflict.
What's the role of religion inside the national conflict but
overall the role of religion into the international conflicts.
If we take into account power, at the first level of relevance, we have
to observe something very, very, important that's to say, most of the religions.
Most of the religions were built in protesting against power.
Almost all religions were organized,
were structures by opposing to power and
there are different kinds of expression of this
very conflictual relation.
The first is really questioning political power and
directly protesting against it.
And the best example is to be found in the history of Islam when Prophet Muhammad
decided to leave the city of Mecca for creating another and
creating Islam at this time was a kind of political protest,
that's to say Islam has been really generated
through political protest against the organization of the city of Mecca.
The second configuration is to be found in other religions.
Which didn't really question the political power, but ignore it and
try to organize themselves in a softer position of getting the power.
And for this reason, this new religion
was persecuted by the all power which feel
to be threatened by the new religions.
It was quite clear for the Roman empire when Christianism grew up but
it's also quite clear about Buddhism, and
the role of protest played by Buddhism against the Hindu system.
That's when I say Hindu society made of inequalities,
and the Hindu kingdoms.
The third aspect of this opposition is to define in the role of religion
which tried to balance power, to contain powers.
A good example is to be found with Christianism, which was conceived through
this famous theory of the truth words of two fields, temporal and spiritual,
in which the spiritual power was supposed to contain and
to balance the temporal power of the king,
the famous western theory of balance of power.
Finds probably its origin in this vision of duality
which was created and promoted by Christianism.
Buddhism is also another example of balancing power,
the role of a Buddhist monarchism in the Tang Empire.
It's a good instance of this monarchism which was
supposed to conquer the imperial power.
That's why sometimes in Chinese imperial power, Tang power, tried to contain and
sometimes even persecuted the monarchism in China.
Another kind of opposition is to be found in the depreciation of power.
Hinduism is considered as depreciating the political power.
The Brahmans are considered superior to
the kings and the political actors.
That is to say it's a manner of saying that
contemplation is more legitimate than power.
And is supposed also to contain the pretensions of power.
But in the meantime, religion has been used also for strengthening power.
It's a kind of inversion of it's original function,
if we take into account, for example, the Cesarean Papalism and
the theory of absolutist state in western Europe.
They were conceived as trying to legitimize the political power,
the king power, by using religious for and
by organizing the alliance between church and state.
The same can be found in some Buddhist countries like Thailand in which
the power of the king is also fueled by Buddhism and
in which the king is considered to have a part
of a religious legitimacy.
Sometimes it's another figure.
Religion appears to be a substitute to political power.
And this is quite clear with Islam.
When the city of Medina was created by the prophet,
this city was considered as a substitute to this negative city of Mecca.
And this inspired, influenced,
strongly influenced, the new Muslim empires.
The Empire, and then the Empire
creating a new kind of merging between political power and religious power.
And the same can be found now, for instance, in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
when the alliance between the family of the king and
the Al Sheikh family which was considered as
religious family provided a religious legitimacy to the king and to the kingdom.
And, sometimes, religion is
a basis of delegitimizing power.
The Islam protest is consider as a way of delegitimizing
the political power, it was the case, for instance,
when the Muslim brothers protested against the power of the royal family and
after when Sayyid Qutb contested the power of
Gamal Abdel Nasser, which was fueled by secularism.
Now if we move to the second concept which is the concept of mobilization.
Religion is playing a very important role in organizing,
in different ways, the political mobilization.
I will consider three figures.
The first one is this figure which is very strongly present in Islam,
of mobilization which is considered as more legitimate than power.
In this vision, mobilization is defined
as not from but also as a religious duty.
If we take into account a role played by Sayyid Qutb
who was a leader of the Muslim brothers
during the Gamal Abdel Nasser period,
the main argument of Sayyid Qutb did to
say that when a power is not properly
ruled when a power doesn't work according to the Sharia,
the Islam community has not only the right, but has a duty to fight against it.
And that's why in his mind, Jihad is not only
against those who are belonging to all the religions,
but Jihad is also to
be used inside the Muslim community when the prince,
when the ruler is not working according to the Islamic law.
This is very important because this is providing a very
strong religious legitimacy to protestant demobilization and
that's why this Islamist tradition, Islamist means
this strong connection between political protest and
Islam is playing such an important role in Muslim countries.
This protest can be oriented against the power
when the power is consider as not respecting the divine law.
But religious law but is also used against Western countries and
that's why Islamism was one of the first
mobilization against Western countries.
Don't forget that Muslim brothers were created at the end of the 20's,
during the 20th century, and at this time, Hassan-el-Banna,
was living in Isma'iliyah to save a city which was,
as you know, occupied by many western
people coming from Europe, and
especially from the UK and France, for the Suez Canal.
Hassan el-Banna used this Islamist formula for
contesting and protesting against the Western presence in Egypt.
But something very important,
Islamism is not necessarily leading
to a strong and a violent protest.
There is another figure inside Islamism,
inside the Islamist tradition by which
politics was considered as something
really pure which is probably spoiling,
and which must be contained.
This tradition is now to define in
some Muslim brothers, but also in some tradition of
in which politics is contested, but
not really fought against.
And in which, people are appealed to leave the city,
and not being involved inside political activities.
And last point, mobilization is also a way for
expressing demons, and religion is playing a very important role by doing that.
For instance when opposition is not really structured, or
is not able to bring and to transmit social demands.
It also needs our insistence in which religion is a kind of opposition which
does not legally exist, but we can find that also in some democracies
in which Rightist parties are failing,
or are not properly operating, or are decimated.
The case for instance in Europe after World War II, when
Rightist parties were weakened by World War II,
and Prussian democracy acted as
a substitute to these parties, as a way of
bringing and aggregating social demands.
Now last questions.
Conflicts.
What about conflicts?
You know, we used to say that international
conflicts are made of religious clashes.
This is the famous argument
delivered by Samuel Huntington in Clash of Civilization.
But it's not really true.
If we observe the present international conflict,
it's very hard to find a conflict which is directly coming from religious clashes.
The reality is that religion is, as I mentioned, a very good
which is used by political actors, with the entrepreneurs, and
by states in their international activities.
But behind the we can find many, many political factors,
social factors which are much more important than religious factors.
For instance, we can find it's kind of apparent religious
conflict in multi-conventional societies but
in multi-conventional society the problem is not clash of religions,
it is the clash of statutes between minority and majority,
the lack of integration of minorities,
this not a theological problems, those are religious problems,
it's a problem of political participation, and of political statutes.
This is the case, for instance, during the Indian partition, as I mentioned,
in my previous lecture, but it's also the case in many African town
which the statutes of the religious minorities of and
is not particularly and institutionally organized.
It's also the case in civil wars.
Civil wars are coming from collapse of the social contract.
But collapse of social contract doesn't imply that there is a necessary
clash between religions.
When Iraq for instance collapsed as a nation, as a nation state,
it appeared strong opposition between chism, Sunnism and Kurds people.
The Kurds people, no matter which region.
But it's a question of ethnicity.
But this clash was not a religious clash.
It was really a political clash.
Last example is to be found now in international conflict.
International conflict sometimes appear as religious one but
are not religious if we take into account Palestine versus Israel.
It's not a clash of religions, it's purely,
obviously a clash of nationalism.
And if we take into account for instance the Iran-Iraq conflict,
it was not a religious conflict between Shiites and Sunnites.
If it was the case, the Iranian Sunnites would have supported the Iraqi regime and
the Iraqi Shiites would have supported the Iranian regime,
for so the case that's why there is a kind of after thought
about the role played by religion in international conflict
when the social and political factor must be considered.
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